In article , Glenn Gundlach wrote: [....]
The obvious answer is zero. This assumes that you can trim away the offset and it will stay trimmed away. [...]
Capacitors are not the only way to integrate.
In a lot of ways, inductors are worse than capacitors.
You could use an electric motor turning a pot but this is mechanically big.
Electrochemical methods could be used but I suspect that they are worse than capacitors in nearly every way.
You could use a microcontroller and a 24 bit DAC. This actually sounds almost practical.
A lot of op-amps are bad.